The wings were mounted on top of the force transducer and AOA adjuster, and tests were run at 10 and 15 meters per second (40 and 55 Hertz respectively). 40 Hertz for 10 m/s) and the wind speed was measured and calibrated with a static pitot tube. The wind tunnel operated at a specific frequency (e.g. Each of the four wings were printed in four pieces (to fit on to the 12cm high print bed) and then pinned, glued, prepped, and sanded.Ī subsonic open-return blowing-type tunnel was used to perform the experiments. They were then printed on a Monoprice Select Mini V2 3D printer. Autodesk Fusion 360 was used as 3D modelling software to create all wing designs. This process assisted with the final decision to use a 60% avian airfoil and 40% symmetrical airfoil for superior simulated lift, efficiency, and stall performance. Xflr5 (a derivative of the popular simulation program Xfoil) was used to interpolate between an albatross and NACA 0009 airfoil, then to simulate 2D lift and drag characteristics before 3D designs were created. All wing planforms were designed to have a near-identical, rectangular shape to standardise the characteristic dimensions of each wing at two windspeeds. The manipulated variables of airfoil, winglets, and tubercles were chosen in order to isolate and evaluate the effect of each biomimetic modification. The challenge of adapting avian complexity to a human-engineered prototype was managed by choosing two fundamental design elements: airfoil and wing shape.įour wings were designed for testing: a ‘control’ wing based on a standard NACA 0012 airfoil (UIUC Airfoil Database, 2019), a cambered avian airfoil, an avian airfoil with a blended winglet, and a NACA 0012 airfoil with whale-inspired tubercles (the “bumps” on the leading edge of a whales’ flippers), modeled as sinusoidal protrusions on the leading edge of the wing. The wings tested have an approximate Reynolds number of 60,000 at 10 m/s and 90,000 at 15 m/s. For example, a large subsonic aircraft would have a far higher Reynolds number than a small drone or bird. Because it is dependent on airspeed and airfoil length, it is not easily scalable between models. The Reynolds number is a dimensionless ratio that standardizes aeronautical testing based on size, windspeed, viscosity, and density. The issue of scale was minimised by designing wings that overlapped with the Reynolds numbers of soaring bird wings. The design criteria for this study were influenced by challenges of scale and the complex morphology of living systems. Advantages of UAVs for such applications can include a reduced human exposure to danger, increased cost effectiveness, and greater deployability. This work is specifically devised to improve upon high-lift and high-manoeuvrability flight of drones in disaster and reconnaissance situations. The primary purpose of this research was to create a wing design based on avian and whale characteristics that results in overall performance improvements in lift, drag, and stall angle. However, smaller drones without expansive fuel storage or lavish budgets are struggling to become reliable, maneuverable, and efficient. Large fixed-wing UAVs can now fly at speeds of up to 70 meters per second and travel up to 40 kilometers in distance. Fixed-wing aircraft generally exhibit an advantage to rotor-based drones in terms of overall fuel efficiency and maximum flight distance, yet come with a unique set of challenges (Di Luca, M., Mintchev, S., Heitz, G., Noca, F., and Floreano, D., 2017). In recent years small unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) have begun to emerge as an indispensable tool in many industries, particularly in disaster relief (Winslow, Otsuka, Govindarajan, & Chopra, 2018). These two beneficial modifications could be combined in future work, with the eventual application to unmanned fixed-wing drones for disaster relief and reconnaissance. A sinusoidal wing with leading edge ‘tubercles’ also delayed stall and displayed more consistent lift performance at both windspeeds. Results showed that an interpolated avian airfoil design improves lift performance, delays stall, and exhibits the highest efficiency at an optimal angle of attack. In addition to a control wing, three designs were based on the unique evolutionary adaptations of birds and whales: modifications were incorporated to create an avian airfoil, an avian blended winglet design, and sinusoidal protrusions inspired by cetacean morphology. Four biomimetic wings were designed, 3D printed, and tested in order to determine superior lift, drag, efficiency, and stall performance.
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